🔆 PAHARI SCHOOL OF PAINTING
📍 Region & Centres
🟢 Region: Himachal Pradesh, adjoining Punjab, Jammu and Garhwal.
🟢 Period: 17th–18th centuries.
🟢 Major Centres: Basohli, Guler, Kangra and Kulu-Mandi.
📍 1. Basohli School
🟢 Earliest centre of Pahari painting.
🟢 Developed under the patronage of Raja Kripal Pal.
🟢 Artist Devidasa illustrated Rasamanjari miniatures in 1694 CE.
🟢 The later Basohli style was followed by the Jammu group of paintings.
📍 2. Jammu Group of Paintings
🟢 Mainly consisted of portraits of Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota.
🟢 Nainsukh, originally from Guler, executed these portraits after settling at Jasrota.
🟢 Balwant Singh in Prayer is an important example.
📍 3. Guler School
🟢 Developed a style closely associated with the portraits of Balwant Singh of Jasrota.
🟢 Portraits of Raja Goverdhan Chand of Guler were executed around 1750 CE.
📍 4. Kangra School
🟢 Emerged from the Guler style in the last quarter of the 18th century.
🟢 Paintings are attributed to the Nainsukh family.
🟢 Under Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Sikh nobility, painters produced portraits and miniatures in a modified Kangra style during the 19th century.
🟢 Example: Kaliya Mardana, from the Bhagavata Purana.
📍 5. Kulu-Mandi School
🟢 A folk style inspired by local traditions.
🔆 PRELIMS QUICK REVISION
🟢 Basohli: Earliest Pahari centre; Rasamanjari; Devidasa.
🟢 Guler: Raja Goverdhan Chand; c. 1750 CE.
🟢 Jasrota: Raja Balwant Singh; Nainsukh.
🟢 Kangra: Developed from Guler; Kaliya Mardana.
🟢 Kulu-Mandi: Folk traditions.
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🔆 SANGAM AGE: POLITY
📍 Three Major Dynasties – Muvendars
🟢 Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas were the three major dynasties of South India, collectively known as Muvendars in Sangam literature.
🟢 Their presence can be traced to the Mauryan period.
🟢 The Pandyas are mentioned in the Major Rock Edicts of Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE).
🟢 They were associated with Megalithic culture.
📍 Administration
🟢 Aimperunkulu: Council of five ministers.
🟢 Enperayam: Council of eight government officials.
🟢 Both councils are mentioned in Silappadikaram.
🟢 Hereditary monarchy was the prevailing form of government.
📍 Administrative Divisions
🟢 Mandalam/Nadu: Province.
🟢 Ur: Town.
🟢 Perur: Big village.
🟢 Sirur: Small village.
📍 Military and Royal Symbols
🟢 Each ruler maintained a regular army and had a Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
🟢 Pandyas: Carp/Fish 🐟
🟢 Cholas: Tiger 🐅
🟢 Cheras: Bow 🏹
🔆 PRELIMS QUICK REVISION
📍 Muvendars = Cholas + Cheras + Pandyas
📍 Aimperunkulu = 5 ministers
📍 Enperayam = 8 officials
#history #prelims #mains
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🔆 DHOKRA CRAFT | TRADITIONAL METAL CASTING
📚 UPSC Current Affairs | AnmolVachan1
🔆 Why in the News?
🟢 The ancient metal-casting tradition of Dhokra Craft featured among the 16 mementos from Chhattisgarh in the Prime Minister’s collection.
🔆 About Dhokra Craft
🟢 Nature: Traditional tribal metal-casting craft.
🟢 Origin: Associated with communities across Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha.
🟢 Antiquity: Believed to be around 4,000 years old.
🟢 Name: Believed to derive from the Dhokra Damar tribes, traditional metalworkers of Central India.
🟢 Artistic themes: Animals, birds, deities, tribal symbols, nature and everyday life.
🔆 Lost-Wax Technique (Cire Perdue)
🟢 Step 1: Create a clay core.
🟢 Step 2: Cover it with beeswax and sculpt intricate designs.
🟢 Step 3: Apply layers of clay over the wax model.
🟢 Step 4: Heat the mould to melt and drain the wax.
🟢 Step 5: Pour molten metal into the cavity.
🟢 Step 6: Break the mould after cooling to reveal the finished sculpture.
🔆 GI Recognition
🟢 Bastar Dhokra: Chhattisgarh — GI tag awarded in 2008.
🟢 Adilabad Dokra: Telangana — GI tag awarded in 2018.
🔆 Challenges
🟢 Rapid urbanisation and declining traditional craft practices.
🟢 Competition from mechanised production.
🟢 Need to sustain artisan livelihoods and preserve traditional skills.
🔆 UPSC Prelims Pointers
🟢 Dhokra: Traditional metal casting using the lost-wax technique.
🟢 Cire perdue: Another name for the lost-wax casting process.
🟢 GI tag: Identifies goods whose qualities or reputation are linked to a specific geographical origin.
🔆 UPSC Mains Question
📍 Traditional crafts are repositories of India’s cultural heritage but face growing economic and technological challenges. Discuss measures to preserve crafts such as Dhokra while ensuring sustainable livelihoods for artisans.
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🔆 KINNAL ART & BIDRIWARE | TRADITIONAL CRAFTS OF KARNATAKA
📍 Why in the News?
🟢 Kinnal Art and Bidriware are among Karnataka’s traditional crafts showcased at the 8th edition of PM Mementos.
🔆 KINNAL ART
📍 Origin & History
🟢 Location: Kinhal village, Koppal district, North Karnataka.
🟢 Origin: Developed during the Vijayanagara Empire (15th–16th centuries).
🟢 Craft Type: Traditional wooden craft known for colourful handmade idols with a glossy finish.
📍 Key Features
🟢 Material: Ponki Marra wood, which is soft, lightweight and suitable for carving.
🟢 Artisans: Known as Chitragars, traditionally associated with the temples and palaces of Hampi.
🟢 Themes: Hindu deities, mythological characters and animals.
🟢 Technique: Entirely handmade, involving labour-intensive carving and decoration.
🟢 Present Status: Only around 25 families in Kinhal village continue practising the craft.
🟢 GI Status: Kinnal wooden idols have received a Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
🔆 BIDRIWARE
📍 Origin & History
🟢 Location: Bidar, Karnataka.
🟢 Origin: Persian artistic roots; developed in India under the Bahmani Sultanate.
🟢 Historical Period: Emerged during the 14th century and flourished under Allauddin Ahmed Bahmani II.
🟢 Craft Type: Traditional metal inlay work characterised by intricate metallic designs against a black background.
📍 Key Features
🟢 Base Material: Primarily a zinc-copper alloy, sometimes containing tin.
🟢 Inlay Materials: Silver, gold and brass.
🟢 Technique: Casting, engraving and metal inlay, followed by treatment with special clay rich in saltpetre to produce the characteristic black finish.
🟢 Design Influences: Turkish, Arabic, Persian and Indian artistic traditions.
🟢 Motifs: Floral patterns, lotus, swastika, Quranic verses and Persian roses.
🟢 GI Status: Bidriware has received a Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
🔆 UPSC PRELIMS POINTERS
🟢 Kinnal Art: Wooden craft associated with the Vijayanagara Empire.
🟢 Bidriware: Metal inlay craft associated with Bidar and the Bahmani Sultanate.
🟢 Chitragars: Traditional artisans of Kinnal Art.
🟢 Ponki Marra: Wood used in Kinnal idols.
🟢 Saltpetre-rich clay: Used to develop Bidriware’s distinctive black finish.
🟢 GI Tag: Both crafts possess Geographical Indication recognition.
🔆 UPSC MAINS QUESTION
📍 Traditional handicrafts represent India’s cultural heritage and provide livelihoods to artisan communities. Discuss the challenges faced by traditional crafts and suggest measures for their preservation and economic sustainability.
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🔆 INDIA–SWITZERLAND: MOBILITY & COOPERATION
📍 Why in News?
🟢 India and Switzerland signed agreements on mobility, including longer-duration visas and exchange of young professionals.
🟢 Both countries also agreed to strengthen cooperation in areas of mutual interest.
📍 Switzerland: Key Facts
🟢 Location → Central Europe
🟢 Type → Landlocked country
🟢 Capital → Bern
📍 Neighbouring Countries
🟢 West → France
🟢 North → Germany
🟢 East → Austria & Liechtenstein
🟢 South → Italy
📍 Major Geographical Regions
🟢 Jura Mountains → Northwest
🟢 Alps → South & East
🟢 Mittelland (Central Plateau) → Between the Jura and Alps
🟢 The Mittelland covers nearly one-fourth of Switzerland.
📍 Climate
🟢 Switzerland is influenced by four major European air masses:
• Atlantic → Mild & moist
• Arctic → Cold & dry
• Eastern continental air
• Mediterranean → Warm & moist
📍 Mountains & Lakes
🟢 Jura Mountains → Rolling range formed through Alpine folding.
🟢 Alps → Composed of complex overthrusts of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks, shaped by glaciation.
🟢 Lake Geneva & Lake Constance → Two largest lakes.
🟢 Highest point → Dufourspitze (Monte Rosa) in the Pennine Alps.
📍 Major Rivers
🟢 Rhine
🟢 Rhône
🟢 Aare
🟢 Ticino
🟢 Inn
📍 UPSC PRELIMS
🟢 Capital → Bern
🟢 Highest point → Dufourspitze (Monte Rosa)
🟢 Mountain regions → Jura, Alps & Mittelland
🟢 Largest lakes → Lake Geneva & Lake Constance
🟢 Neighbouring countries → France, Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein & Italy
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Q. India’s engagement with European countries is increasingly expanding beyond traditional economic cooperation. Discuss the emerging areas of India–Switzerland cooperation.
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🔆 RAJA RAVI VARMA | INDIAN PAINTING
📚 UPSC Current Affairs | AnmolVachan1
🔆 Why in the News?
🟢 Radhikaraje Gaekwad, Maharani of Baroda, announced plans to exhibit the royal collection of original paintings by Raja Ravi Varma across India and abroad.
🔆 About Raja Ravi Varma
🟢 Born: 1848, Travancore (present-day Kerala).
🟢 Patron: Ayilyam Thirunal, ruler of Travancore.
🟢 Training: Began painting at age 14 under court artist Rama Swami Naidu and learned oil painting techniques by observing British painter Theodore Jensen.
🟢 Died: 1906.
🔆 Artistic Style
🟢 Combined Indian mythology and themes with European realism and naturalism.
🟢 Used oil painting, realistic anatomy and three-dimensional effects.
🟢 Depicted dramatic episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata.
🟢 Created widely recognised visual representations of Hindu gods, goddesses and epic characters.
🔆 Famous Paintings
🟢 Damayanti Talking to a Swan
🟢 Shakuntala Looking for Dushyanta
🟢 Yashoda and Krishna
🟢 Jatayu Vadha
🟢 Shantanu and Matsyagandha
🟢 Nair Lady Adorning Her Hair
🔆 Major Contributions
🟢 1873: Nair Lady Adorning Her Hair won the Governor’s Gold Medal at the Madras Presidency exhibition.
🟢 1893: Received recognition at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
🟢 1894: Established the Raja Ravi Varma Fine Art Lithographic Press in Bombay to produce affordable prints of paintings.
🟢 His prints helped popularise images of Hindu deities and spread shared visual symbols of Indian identity.
🟢 His dramatic historical paintings influenced early Indian cinema pioneers, including Dadasaheb Phalke and Baburao Painter.
🟢 1904: Awarded the Kaiser-i-Hind Gold Medal by the British colonial government.
🟢 2013: A crater on Mercury was named in his honour.
🔆 Significance
🟢 Bridged Indian artistic traditions and European painting techniques.
🟢 Made mythological imagery accessible to a wider public through lithographic prints.
🟢 Influenced Indian popular culture, calendar art and early cinema.
🟢 Contributed to the development of a shared visual imagination of Indian cultural identity.
🔆 UPSC Prelims Pointers
🟢 Raja Ravi Varma: Associated with Indian mythological themes and European realism.
🟢 Lithography: A printing technique that enabled wider reproduction of artworks.
🟢 Travancore: Historical princely state in present-day Kerala.
🟢 Major epics depicted: Ramayana and Mahabharata.
🔆 UPSC Mains Question
📍 Examine the contribution of Raja Ravi Varma to the evolution of modern Indian art and the popularisation of India’s mythological and cultural heritage.
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🔆 UIDAI Launches Aadhaar Face Authentication SDK & Sandbox
📍 Why in News?
At the Global Fintech Fest 2026, UIDAI launched a Face Authentication SDK and Sandbox to enable banks and fintechs to integrate Aadhaar-based face authentication directly into their own apps.
📍 What Has Been Launched?
🟢 Face Authentication SDK: A code library allowing partner apps to natively integrate face capture, liveness/anti-spoofing checks and encrypted data handling.
🟢 Sandbox: An isolated testing environment allowing partners to test the complete authentication journey, including failure scenarios, before deployment.
🟢 Playbook on Ease of Onboarding: A companion document for BFSI entities integrating with UIDAI’s authentication ecosystem.
📍 What Has Changed? — FaceRD to Native SDK
🟢 Earlier: Users needed a separate government-issued FaceRD app running alongside the bank/fintech application.
🟢 Now: The SDK enables face authentication within the partner’s own single application, simplifying onboarding.
📍 Aadhaar Face Authentication
🟢 Face Authentication is one of UIDAI’s three authentication modes, alongside OTP and fingerprint.
🟢 Technology was launched in 2021.
🟢 UIDAI reports 500+ crore transactions processed and adoption by nearly 200 entities.
🟢 It supports use cases such as Jeevan Pramaan, Ayushman Bharat onboarding, SIM e-KYC, PM-KISAN, PM Awas Yojana and PM e-DRIVE.
📍 Role in Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)
🟢 Aadhaar authentication provides a digital identity layer for welfare delivery, financial services and e-KYC.
🟢 Native integration can make authentication more seamless and accessible for BFSI onboarding.
🟢 The initiative strengthens the broader India Stack/DPI ecosystem, alongside platforms such as Aadhaar, UPI and DigiLocker.
📍 Privacy & Security Concerns
🟢 Privacy and Consent: Embedding biometric capture in third-party apps expands the surface across which facial data is collected.
🟢 Spoofing Risks: AI/ML-based liveness and anti-spoofing technologies continue to evolve; sandbox testing improves preparedness but does not guarantee foolproof security.
🟢 Digital Divide: Face authentication assumes access to a suitable smartphone, camera and processing capability, potentially excluding some intended beneficiaries.
🟢 Strong consent, encryption, purpose limitation, data minimisation and accountability are therefore important safeguards.
📍 Key Terms
🟢 UIDAI: Statutory authority under the Aadhaar Act, 2016 responsible for issuing and authenticating Aadhaar numbers.
🟢 SDK: Software/code library used by developers to integrate a particular capability into an application.
🟢 Sandbox: Isolated environment used to test a system before production deployment.
🟢 DPI: Digital infrastructure enabling interoperable delivery of public and private services.
📍 Key Takeaway
The move from FaceRD → native SDK represents the next stage of Aadhaar authentication, making biometric verification more seamlessly embedded in digital services while making privacy, security and inclusion critical to responsible DPI expansion.
📌 UPSC Mains Model Question
“Aadhaar-based authentication technologies are evolving to support India’s Digital Public Infrastructure.” Discuss and examine the privacy safeguards needed as biometric authentication is embedded within third-party applications.
(15 Marks | 250 Words)
#Economy #pib
🔆 ROLE OF INDIAN BUSINESS CLASS IN THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT
🔆 1. Initial Phase (Till 1922)
🟢 Businessmen initially followed a policy of equidistance from Congress and the British government.
🟢 1907: Indian Merchants’ Chamber established in Bombay.
🟢 World War I: Economic gains and losses varied between importers, exporters and mill owners.
🟢 Non-Cooperation Movement: Traders supported the boycott and donated to the Tilak Swaraj Fund, while sections of big business opposed mass agitation.
🟢 G.D. Birla and Jamnalal Bajaj supported Gandhi’s constructive programmes.
🔆 2. Post-Non-Cooperation Movement
🟢 Economic difficulties and competition from cheap Japanese goods brought businessmen closer to nationalism.
🟢 1927: FICCI was established under Purshottam Das Thakurdas and G.D. Birla.
🟢 Business groups increasingly collaborated with Congress over trade, tariff and currency policies.
🔆 3. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34)
🟢 Cloth merchants supported the boycott of foreign goods; industrialists showed a mixed response.
🟢 Sections of Ahmedabad industry supported the movement, while Bombay industrialists such as Tata and Sir Homi Mody opposed it.
🟢 Suspension of the movement in 1934 was welcomed by sections favouring constitutional politics.
🔆 4. After 1934
🟢 Bombay Manifesto (1936): 21 Bombay businessmen opposed socialist policies and defended private property.
🟢 Businessmen continued to provide financial support to Congress, including during the 1937 elections.
🟢 Many industrialists remained reluctant towards the Quit India Movement (1942) due to fears of economic disruption and socialism.
🔆 5. Bombay Plan (1944)
🟢 Prepared by eight industrialists, it advocated planned economic development and state intervention to promote industrialisation.
🟢 It demonstrated that business leaders could support economic planning while protecting private enterprise.
🔆 Overall Assessment
🟢 Businessmen supported economic nationalism, swadeshi and financial assistance to Congress.
🟢 Their support remained conditional due to fears of socialism, labour unrest and revolutionary mass movements.
🟢 Their objective was to end colonial economic discrimination while safeguarding capitalist interests.
🔆 UPSC Mains Question
📍 Critically examine the role of the Indian business class in the national movement, highlighting the tension between economic nationalism and capitalist interests.
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🔆 ODISHA PAINTING
📍 EARLIEST EXAMPLES
🟢 The earliest surviving examples of miniature painting in Odisha date back to the 17th century AD.
📍 IMPORTANT EXAMPLES
🟢 Manuscripts of Gita Govinda.
🟢 An illustrated palm-leaf manuscript of the Ramayana.
📍 MEDIUM USED
🟢 Palm-leaf manuscripts continued to be used in Odisha up to the 19th century.
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🔆 INTEGRATED TRANSPORT & LOGISTICS AUTHORITY (ITLA)
🔆 NEWS
🟢 The Union Cabinet approved the establishment of the Integrated Transport & Logistics Authority (ITLA) as a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) to improve coordination and multimodal integration across India’s transport and logistics sectors.
🔆 ABOUT ITLA
📍 Nodal Agency
🟢 It will be housed in the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT).
📍 Aim
🟢 Address fragmented planning and implementation across transport-related ministries and agencies through better coordination and multimodal integration.
🔆 KEY ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES
🟢 Integrated Planning: Function as the apex body for transport and logistics planning, research, project appraisal, monitoring, policy support and data analytics.
🟢 National Transport Master Plan: Prepare a long-term plan with a horizon of 10 years or more, covering major transport and logistics sectors.
🟢 Sectoral Plan Alignment: Evaluate short-term sectoral and annual plans of transport ministries to ensure alignment with the National Transport Master Plan.
🟢 Infrastructure Appraisal: Undertake technical appraisal of Government of India infrastructure projects costing ₹500 crore or more.
🟢 Project Monitoring: Monitor implementation, support issue resolution and conduct post-implementation impact assessments.
🟢 Unified Transport Data Repository: Integrate datasets from GSTN e-way bills, FASTag, Vahan, GPS-based systems and urban traffic management systems to improve planning and monitoring.
🔆 SIGNIFICANCE
🟢 Multimodal Integration: Improve coordination among different modes of transport.
🟢 Logistics Efficiency: Address fragmented planning and implementation.
🟢 Evidence-Based Governance: Use integrated data for better planning and monitoring.
🟢 Infrastructure Coordination: Strengthen project appraisal and implementation oversight.
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🔆 CURRENT AFFAIRS – SIANG RIVER & SUMP
📍 Why in News?
🟢 Protests against surveys for the proposed Siang Upper Multipurpose Project (SUMP) in Siang and Upper Siang districts of Arunachal Pradesh have led to clashes.
📍 About Siang River
🟢 In the indigenous Adi language, Si means water and Ang means heart — referring to the “water of the river’s heart.”
🟢 The river originates in Tibet as the Yarlung Tsangpo, from glaciers near Mount Kailash.
🟢 It enters Arunachal Pradesh near Gelling and Tuting in Upper Siang district.
🟢 After entering India, it is known as the Siang.
🟢 At Sadiya in Assam, it joins the Dibang and Lohit to form the Brahmaputra.
📍 Major Tributaries
🟢 Siyom
🟢 Yamne
🟢 Simang
🟢 Yargyap Chu
📍 Siang Upper Multipurpose Project (SUMP)
🟢 SUMP is a proposed mega-hydroelectric and flood-control project.
🟢 Location → Near Geku village, Upper Siang district, Arunachal Pradesh
🟢 Installed capacity → 11,000–11,200 MW
🟢 Dam structure → 280–300 m high
🟢 Estimated reservoir volume → 9 billion cubic metres
📍 UPSC PRELIMS
🟢 Yarlung Tsangpo → Siang → Brahmaputra
🟢 Siang enters India → Arunachal Pradesh
🟢 Confluence → Siang + Dibang + Lohit at Sadiya
🟢 SUMP → Upper Siang, Arunachal Pradesh
🟢 Capacity → 11,000–11,200 MW
🟢 Major tributaries → Siyom, Yamne, Simang & Yargyap Chu
📍 UPSC MAINS
Q. Discuss the geographical and strategic significance of the Siang River and examine the key challenges associated with developing large hydropower projects in the Eastern Himalayas.
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🔆 SILK ROAD: EURASIA’S WEB OF TRADE
📍 What was the Silk Road?
🟢 Contrary to its name, the Silk Road was not a single road but a network of land and maritime trade routes connecting parts of East, Central, South and West Asia.
🟢 The network took different forms over more than a millennium.
🟢 It became particularly important from around the 2nd century BCE, when China’s Han dynasty expanded westward and established contacts with Central Asian states.
🟢 Chinese silk was a prized commodity, giving the network its name.
📍 More Than Trade
🟢 The Silk Road facilitated the movement of technologies, religions, artistic styles, languages and philosophical ideas across Eurasia.
🟢 Papermaking spread from China through these networks.
🟢 Buddhism travelled from India through Central Asia into China.
🟢 Christianity, Manichaeism and later Islam also spread along parts of the network.
🟢 Musical traditions, astrology and medical knowledge travelled across Eurasia.
📍 Role of the Mongol Empire
🟢 The network benefited from the Mongol Empire, which brought much of Eurasia within a connected political system during the 13th and 14th centuries.
🟢 This political connectivity encouraged long-distance journeys and exchanges.
📍 Decline & Legacy
🟢 The importance of the Silk Road gradually declined in the early modern period as maritime trade became cheaper, particularly through the Indian Ocean.
🟢 Changing political conditions on land also contributed to its decline.
🟢 Despite this, the network played an important role in making Eurasia economically and culturally interconnected.
📍 UPSC PRELIMS
🟢 Silk Road → Network of land + maritime routes
🟢 Major expansion → 2nd century BCE
🟢 Han Dynasty → Expanded westward and established Central Asian contacts
🟢 Mongol Empire → Strengthened Eurasian connectivity
🟢 Indian Ocean trade → Contributed to the later decline in importance of overland routes
📍 UPSC MAINS
Q. The Silk Road was not merely a network of trade routes but also a channel for the transmission of ideas, religions, technologies and cultures. Discuss.
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