28487
#ielts #toefl #gre #english_vocabulary #english
at Kōmin chose 蛋 for ei rather than 卵 because the latter character visually references testicles whereas 蛋 unambiguously means bird eggs. For those interested, the original passage is:
「蛋白」のオランダ語はeiwitで直訳すると卵白であるが，幸民はなぜ…「蛋」の字をこれに充てたのであろうか。卵は象形文字としてみればわかるように，これは男性の性器を表わす意味がある。幸民はそれを嫌ったのであろうか，鳥のタマゴを意味する。「蛋」を採用して「蛋白」とした… (708-709)
To sum up, we have a German text translated and elaborated into Dutch that was then translated into Japanese. A rather literal translation of “egg white” (Eiweiß/eiwit) as “egg white substance” (蛋白質) yielded the Japanese term that was then imported into written Chinese and given a sinified pronunciation. Also, we avoided male gonads.
Selected readings
* "The transformative power of translation" (7/25/24)
* "Japanese words that are dying out: focus on diabetes" (11/21/23)
* "Advanced lexicography for diabetes in Japan and China" (11/21/23)
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Word of the Day
Word of the Day: haptic
This word has appeared in five articles on NYTimes.com in the past year. Can you use it in a sentence?
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Phrasal Verb of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
flick through
If you flick through a book or a magazine, you have a quick look at a few of the pages.
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Word of the Day
baleful
Definition: (adjective) Threatening or foreshadowing evil or tragic developments.
Synonyms: menacing, minacious, minatory, ominous, sinister, threatening, forbidding.
Usage: He sprang on the horse of a Blackfoot warrior whom he had slain, and escaping at full speed, brought home the baleful tidings to his village.
Discuss
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economics book translated into Japanese. In the course of this work, he encounters difficulties with the concept of “competition.” He decides to coin a new Japanese word, kyoso, derived from the words for “race and fight.”* His patron, a Confucian, is unimpressed with this translation. He suggests other renderings. Why not “love of the nation shown in connection with trade”? Or “open generosity from a merchant in times of national stress”? But Fukuzawa insists on kyoso, and now the word is the first result on Google Translate.
[*VHM: I think this explanation may be confusing to some readers. Fukuzawa's neologism for "competition" is kyōsō 競争, which may also mean "rivalry, contest, emulation, tournament, strife". 競 by itself may mean "compete" and 争 by itself may mean "contest".]
There is a lot more in this paper. In particular, showing how the translation of documents lead to productivity growth on an industry by industry basis and a demonstration of the importance of this mechanism for economic growth across the world.
The bottom line for me is this: What caused the industrial revolution is a perennial question–was it coal, freedom, literacy?–but this is the first paper which gives what I think is a truly compelling answer for one particular case. Japan’s rapid industrialization under the Meiji Restoration was driven by its unprecedented effort to translate, codify, and disseminate Western technical knowledge in the Japanese language.
If you have time, many of the comments that follow the post are illuminating in their own right and worth delving into.
Now, on to the original paper:
"CODIFICATION, TECHNOLOGY ABSORPTION, AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION", by Réka Juhász, Shogo Sakabe and David Weinstein, NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH Working Paper 32667 (July, 2024) Abstract
This paper studies technology absorption worldwide in the late nineteenth century. We construct several novel datasets to test the idea that the codification of technical knowledge in the vernacular was necessary for countries to absorb the technologies of the Industrial Revolution. We find that comparative advantage shifted to industries that could benefit from patents only in countries and colonies that had access to codified technical knowledge but not in other regions. Using the rapid and unprecedented codification of technical knowledge in Meiji Japan as a natural experiment, we show that this pattern appeared in Japan only after the Japanese government codified as much technical knowledge as what was available in Germany in 1870. Our findings shed new light on the frictions associated with technology diffusion and offer a novel take on why Meiji Japan was unique among non-Western countries in successfully industrializing during the first wave of globalization. Telling prefatory quotation
“At present, the learning of China and Japan is not sufficient; it must be supplemented and made complete by inclusion of the learning of the entire world… I would like to see all persons in the realm thoroughly familiar with the enemy’s conditions, something that can best be achieved by allowing them to read barbarian books as they read their own language. There is no better way to enable them to do this than by publishing [a] dictionary.” Shozan Sakuma (1811-1864), 1858, quoted in Hirakawa (2007, p. 442, emphasis added)
Hirakawa, S. (2007). Japan’s turn to the West. In J. W. Hall, M. B. Jansen, M. Kanai, and D. Twitchett (Eds.), The Cambridge History of Japan: The Nineteenth Century, Volume 5, pp. 432–498. New York: Cambridge University Press.
N.B.: Already in the middle of the 19th century, Japanese were thinking of an East Asian co-prosperity condominium with China.
As to why the trajectory of scientific change was so radically different in Japan from what it was elsewhere outside of Europe, the authors have their own hypotheses and draw their own conclusions, which are basically centered on economic realities and grounded in "tec[...]
Language Log
The transformative power of translation
"Not Lost In Translation: How Barbarian Books Laid the Foundation for Japan’s Industrial Revolution", by Alex Tabarrok, Marginal Revolution (July 22, 2024)
I am grateful to Alex Tabarrok and his colleague Tyler Cowen at Marginal Revolution University of George Mason University's Mercatus Center for introducing me to what is one of the most mind-boggling/blowing papers I have read in the last decade.
First, here is Tabarrok's introduction, and that will be followed by selections from the revolutionary paper to which I am referring.
Japan’s growth miracle after World War II is well known but that was Japan’s second miracle. The first was perhaps even more miraculous. At the end of the 19th century, under the Meiji Restoration, Japan transformed itself almost overnight from a peasant economy to an industrial powerhouse.
After centuries of resisting economic and social change, Japan transformed from a relatively poor, predominantly agricultural economy specialized in the exports of unprocessed, primary products to an economy specialized in the export of manufactures in under fifteen years.
In a remarkable new paper, Juhász, Sakabe, and Weinstein show how the key to this transformation was a massive effort to translate and codify technical information in the Japanese language. This state-led initiative made cutting-edge industrial knowledge accessible to Japanese entrepreneurs and workers in a way that was unparalleled among non-Western countries at the time.
Here’s an amazing graph which tells much of the story. In both 1870 and 1910 most of the technical knowledge of the world is in French, English, Italian and German but look at what happens in Japan–basically no technical books in 1870 to on par with English in 1910. Moreover, no other country did this. http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/~bgzimmer/juhasz1.jpg [Click to embiggen for easy reading]
Translating a technical document today is much easier than in the past because the words already exist. Translating technical documents in the late 19th century, however, required the creation and standardization of entirely new words.
…the Institute of Barbarian Books (Bansho Torishirabesho)…was tasked with developing English-Japanese dictionaries to facilitate technical translations. This project was the first step in what would become a massive government effort to codify and absorb Western science. Linguists and lexicographers have written extensively on the difficulty of scientific translation, which explains why little codification of knowledge happened in languages other than English and its close cognates: French and German (c.f. Kokawa et al. 1994; Lippert 2001; Clark 2009). The linguistic problem was two-fold. First, no words existed in Japanese for canonical Industrial Revolution products such as the railroad, steam engine, or telegraph, and using phonetic representations of all untranslatable jargon in a technical book resulted in transliteration of the text, not translation. Second, translations needed to be standardized so that all translators would translate a given foreign word into the same Japanese one.
Solving these two problems became one of the Institute’s main objectives.
Here’s a graph showing the creation of new words in Japan by year. You can see the explosion in new words in the late 19th century. Note that this happened well after the Perry Mission. The words didn’t simply evolve, the authors argue new words were created as a form of industrial policy. http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/~bgzimmer/juhasz2.jpg [Click to embiggen for easy reading]
By the way, AstralCodexTen points us to an interesting biography of a translator at the time who works on economics books:
[Fukuzawa Yukichi {1835-1901}] makes great progress on a number of translations. Among them is the first Western[...]
Slang of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
hood (2)
a criminal, a member of a criminal gang
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Idiom of the Day
knock (one's) head against a/the wall
To attempt continuously and fruitlessly to accomplish some task or achieve some goal that is or seems ultimately hopeless. Watch the video
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Learn English Through Football Podcast: Euro 2024 Review – The Best and Worst
Читать полностью…
Slang of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
indie
rock music not released by major music labels
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Idiom of the Day
be knocking on heaven's door
To be dying; to be approaching or very close to death (i.e., about to be admitted into the afterlife). Watch the video
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ord as acknowledging that this revered document has virtually no legal significance. No kidding.
Fortunately, the document that was ratified by Americans in the late 1780's — an edition printed in New York several days after the signing of the parchment in Philadelphia — bears a close resemblance to the text we have all grown up with. Although the official printed archetype of the Constitution (whose existence has for many years been a well kept if unintended secret) is marked by different punctuation and capitalization, the words are the same as those in the familiar parchment. Thus, the National Archives version is probably good enough for government work.
In other words, constitutional capitalization was a stochastic sociolinguistic process. It might be revealing to construct a statistical model of capitalization practices in the relevant regions of time and space, but I don't think anyone has done it.
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Word of the Day
Word of the Day: revue
This word has appeared in 52 articles on NYTimes.com in the past year. Can you use it in a sentence?
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Phrasal Verb of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
dig up
If you dig up something, you get it from under the ground by digging.
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Word of the Day
eloquence
Definition: (noun) Powerful and effective language.
Synonyms: fluency, smoothness.
Usage: The preacher's eloquence attracted a large congregation.
Discuss
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Language Log
"Protein" in Chinese and Japanese
[This is a guest post by Nathan Hopson]
I recently received the following delightful question from Hilary Smith (University of Denver) about the origins of the term for protein in Chinese (dànbáizhì) and Japanese (tanpakushitsu). Thanks to her for pointing me down this lovely rabbit hole!
The hanzi/kanji used are identical (蛋白質), though in written Japanese the term is often タンパク質 or たんぱく質 because the 蛋 character is not one of the “regular use” kanji (常用漢字 jōyō kanji) selected by the officially announced by the Japanese education ministry for mastery during compulsory education.
Hilary wrote that she had circumstantial evidence from some extant texts that, like a lot of other technical vocabulary, this word was coined in Japan to translate a European term in the late nineteenth or early twentieth century. That language, she suspected, was German. In German, the word is Eiweiß, which breaks down to Ei (egg) weiß (white). This is a perfect match for the Sino-Japanese term’s first two characters; the third means “stuff” or “substance.”
Hilary asked if I could confirm the German origin and comment on the date of coinage in Japanese. The answer turned out to be a fascinating train of translation with a detour into (and immediately away from) testicular imagery.
The standard answer to the origins of 蛋白質 in Japanese is provided by the Nihongo daijiten (“Great Japanese Dictionary” 日本国語大辞典), last edited in 1995. The dictionary cites Shiba Ryōkai’s (司馬凌海 1839-1879) 1862 七新藥 (Shichi shin’yaku, “Seven new medicines”) as the oldest extant use of the term 蛋白質. That comes in a passage describing protein binding:
「…蛋白質と相結合して以て其功を発す」
…tanpakushitsu to aiketsugō shite, motte sono kō o hassu
Roughly: “[It] binds with protein and thereby has its effect”
In digging just a little further I came across an article by Shiba Tetsuo (芝哲夫) that uncovers evidence of the term used a year earlier, in 1861, by Kawakami Kōmin (川本幸民 1810-1871). Kawakami was the translator to Japanese of Julius Adolph Stöckhardt’s (1809-1886) Die Schule der Chemie (“School of Chemistry”), a highly influential text first published in 1846. It went through over twenty editions and was widely translated. Thus far, the German origins hypothesis for 蛋白質 was holding up well, though the date of origin was pushed back far beyond not just the texts Hilary had access to, but even a year past its canonical coinage.
However, Kawakami was not working directly from German. Japan had centuries of skill and knowledge working from Dutch texts (via Rangaku 蘭学, or “Dutch learning”), and Kawakami was a veteran scholar of the Dutch learning. He therefore turned to an existing Dutch expanded translation by Jan Willem Gunning, De scheikunde van het onbewerktuigde en bewerktuigde rijk: bevattelijk voorgesteld en met eenvoudige proeven opgehelderd: derde Nederduitsche uitgave van Stöckhardt’s Schule der chemie (“The chemistry of the organized and unorganized kingdom… 3rd. ed. of Stöckhardt’s Die Schule der Chemie”). Kawakami’s multi-volume translation was published as化学新書 (Kagaku shinsho, “New book of chemistry”). Therein, he used the term 蛋白質 to translate the Dutch “eiwit,” which is structurally identical to the German Eiweiß.
The remaining mystery, which Shiba addresses, is why Kawakami elected to use the glyph 蛋. In Japanese, “egg” (tamago) can be written multiple ways, including with the single character 卵. Other than in the compound 蛋白質, the 蛋 character is rarely seen outside of Chinese restaurant menus in Japan today because it is not incuded in the jōyō kanji. I won’t speculate on the chicken-and-egg causality problem of whether it fell into disuse and was removed from the list or whether removal from the list is what made it fall out of use. It is enough to say that the 蛋 character is unusual these days. Shiba speculates th[...]
Slang of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
afters
dessert, sweet dish eaten after the main course of a meal
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Idiom of the Day
know every trick in the book
To be aware of or knowledgeable in every possible way to do or achieve something, especially ways that are clever, cunning, or ethically questionable. Watch the video
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hnical literacy / knowledge", i.e., "the codification of engineering, commercial, and industrial practices"
Fair enough, but neither this team of brilliant analysts nor any other scholars I know of attribute Japan's meteoric rise to the fact that, despite their being sealed off from the rest of the world until Commodore Matthew C. Perry (1794-1858) with his Black Ships forced the Japanese empire to open its ports and gates (1852-54), their possession of a flexible script (phonetic kana plus morphosyllabic kanji) was operative. In my estimation such a writing system would have played a significant role in their lexicographic borrowing and epistemological foundations. Selected readings
William C. Hannas, Asia's Orthographic Dilemma (Honolulu, Hawai'i: University of Hawai'i Press, 1997).
William C. Hannas, The writing on the wall: How Asian orthography curbs creativity (Philadelphia, PA: University of Philadelphia Press, 2003).
[Thanks to Ben Benzon]
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Language Log
English usage in Taiwan
From a Facebook page with Army background in Taiwan: http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/~bgzimmer/voiceofhan.jpg Facebook page for Voice of Han Broadcasting Network
(漢聲廣播電台 hànshēng guǎngbō diàntái)
from Taiwan's Ministry of National Defense
The large lettering on the poster reads:
zǎo ān
bù wèi fēngyǔ
dōu shì weather nǐ
早安
不畏風雨，
都是weather你
Good morning
Not afraid of wind or rain
It's all for you
The "weather" is a crosslingual pun for wèile 為了 ("for; on behalf of").
You can see that the soldiers are all decked out for inclement weather, which comes a lot in Taiwan.
The poster is part of the publicity for the Han Kuang Exercise, which is going on right now (Monday, Jul 22, 2024 – Friday, Jul 26, 2024).
The Han Kuang Exercise (Chinese: 漢光演習; pinyin: Hànguāng Yǎnxí) is the annual military exercise of the Republic of China Armed Forces in Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu for combat readiness in the event of an attack from the People's Liberation Army of the People's Republic of China.
(source)
For those who are curious, "Han Kuang" superficially means "light / glory of Han", but in the context of the Han Kuang Exercise, its authoritative intent originally was Dàhàn guāngfù 大漢光復 ("gloriously restore the Great Han"). That harkened back to the Han Dynasty (202 BC-25-220 AD), but, in the context of the ROC-PRC confrontation, it had the implication of "retake the mainland". That was clearly the sentiment of the KMT (Nationalist) government and the couple of million people from the mainland who accompanied Chiang Kai-shek when he retreated with his armies to Taiwan when the communists conquered China. After the KMT lost its dominance over the island nation to the Taiwanese majority DPP (Democratic Progressive Party) at the beginning of the new millennium, the Han Kuang Exercise — regardless of the original intent of the name — was reinterpreted to emphasize the strongest possible defensive posture against the threat of an attack by the PRC / CCP. (source, especially note 1)
This year the Han Kuang Exercise has particular poignancy and urgency because of the heightened tensions in the region and the ever increasing hostility of the mainland military forces.
Aside from the crosslingual pun involving "weather" that I explained above, there's another very important linguistic aspect to the Han Kuang Exercise that I almost neglected to mention. Namely, the Han Kuang Exercise is carried out bilingually, in "Chinese" and English. I would hope that "Chinese" means that the written components of the war games are in Mandarin, but that the spoken components include Taiwanese and other languages of Taiwan.
I have on several occasions mentioned that the government of Taiwan during the 21st century has made it clear that it wishes to make English an official language of the country. The fact that the Han Kuang Exercise is conducted in "Chinese" and English is solid evidence of working toward the realization of this goal. Selected readings * "English as an official language in Taiwan" (12/8/18)
* Ralph Jennings, "Isolation-wary, Chinese-speaking Taiwan moves to make English an official language", Los Angeles Times (10/15/18)
* "Taiwan to make English an official language next year, says official", Jennifer Creery, Hong Kong Free Press (8/31/18)
[Thanks to shaing tai]
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Word of the Day
Word of the Day: defector
This word has appeared in 38 articles on NYTimes.com in the past year. Can you use it in a sentence?
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Phrasal Verb of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
speak up (2)
If you speak up, you publicly state your position on an issue, or publicly oppose or defend someone or something.
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Word of the Day
ineffable
Definition: (adjective) Incapable of being expressed.
Synonyms: indescribable, unspeakable, untellable, unutterable, indefinable.
Usage: There was an expression of ineffable sadness on her face as she spoke, and I could not but feel that she knew that I knew her secret.
Discuss
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Word of the Day
Word of the Day: exacting
This word has appeared in 265 articles on NYTimes.com in the past year. Can you use it in a sentence?
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Phrasal Verb of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
dish out (2)
If you dish out something like criticism or advice, you give it often and without much thought.
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Word of the Day
inaugural
Definition: (adjective) Serving to set in motion.
Synonyms: initiative, initiatory, maiden, first.
Usage: The magazine's inaugural issue sold out in a matter of days, prompting the owners to publish the second issue in larger numbers.
Discuss
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Language Log
Capitalization in the constitution?
A few years ago (in "…'such matters as Opinion, not real worth, gives a value to'", 11/20/2016), based on reading Mary Astell's 1694 work A serious proposal to the ladies, for the advancement of their true and greatest interest, I asked:
Why did authors from Astell's time distribute initial capital letters in the apparently erratic way that they did?
And I quoted Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Introduction to Late Modern English, 2009:
The use of extra initial capitals, according to Osselton, steadily increased during the first half of the eighteenth century to about 100 per cent around the 1750s after which this practice was drastically reduced and, fifty years later, abandoned completely. The reason for giving up the practice to capitalise all nouns was pressure from writers, who felt that they could not longer make use of capitals to emphasize individual words, as they had been accustomed to do before such idiosyncratic use of capitals was standardised by the printers.
This doesn't really answer the question asked today in an email from Joseph Huang, who links to my 2016 post, and asks: "I saw your blog post about capitalization. I am wondering whether you have studied capitalization in the Constitution."
Joseph continues:
It appears to me most of the nouns, if not all, are capitalized. For example, in the preamble, I only find "defence" is not capitalized, all the other nouns are capitalized.
"We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America."
All the nouns in Art. 1 Sec. 1 are capitalized.
"All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives."
"Vacancies" in Art. 1 Sec. 2 Clause 4 is not capitalized.
"When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies."
The 11th Amendment was passed by Congress on March 4, 1794, and ratified by the states on February 7, 1795. In this amendment, there is a significantly smaller percentage of nouns capitalized. But Judicial (adj), Citizens, Subjects, Foreign (adj) State are still capitalized. So such capitalization means Citizens and State are proper nouns? But what about Judicial and Foreign? Note that law and equity are not capitalized, but they are capitalized in the Constitution (Art. III Sec. 2).
"The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State."
This is confusing to me: how the drafters of the Constitution and the amendments decide what to capitalize? Are you aware of any linguistic studies of capitalization in the Constitution and the amendments?
Short answer: No. Maybe some commenters will contribute references to relevant linguistic studies?
But I am aware of some work by legal scholars that makes a relevant point, e.g. Akhil Reed Amar, "Our Forgotten Constitution: A Bicentennial Comment", The Yale Law Journal 1987:
This is a story about the Constitution that begins with some rather shocking facts: The parchment that all of us — practitioners, judges, scholars — have been using for the last century as the definitive copy of the supreme law of the land, is not. The handwritten, handsigned document enshrined in the National Archives and reprinted everywhere was never ratified by "We the People of the United States." Even the Senate is on rec[...]
Slang of the Day | Vocabulary | EnglishClub
pooped
very tired, exhausted
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Idiom of the Day
knock (someone) over with a feather
To shock, confuse, or astonish someone to a point of complete bewilderment; throw someone for a loop. More often phrased as "you could have knocked me over with a feather," expressing great bewilderment or surprise. Watch the video
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