لطفا نظرات خود را برای ما ارسال کنید : 👇🏻 @Takmililab این کانال به همت چندین فلوشیپ و فارغ التحصیل دکتری تخصصی راه اندازه شده است . در این کانال سعی بر آن است تا از 0 تا 100 با شما باشیم دکتر شکوه امیری : فلوشیپ دکتر محمد نژاد : فلوشیپ
٩٧- بیماری ٦٠ ساله با ضعف، تب، درد شدید ناحیه پهلو و اسپلنومگالی محسوس به بخش مراجعه نمـوده اسـت. بررسـی خون محیطی سیتوپنی شدید رده مونوسیتی و گلبول های قرمز را نشان می دهد. بیوپسی مغـز اسـتخوان در بـار اول بوده (اصطلاحاً: تَپِ او س ش است!) و در بیوپسـی دوم نمـایی شـبیه لنفـوم سـلول B بـزرگ (large B cell lymphoma) گزارش می شود. در بررسی سیتوشیمیایی لام مغز استخوان ایزوآنزیم خاصی از اسید فسـفاتاز گـزارش شده است. برای تشخیص قطعی و افتراقی این بیماری کدام پانل منطقی تر به نظر میرسد؟
الف) CD14, CD5, FMC7, CD20, CD19
ب) CD11c, CD25, CD20, CD19, CD117
ج) CD5, CD33, CD34, CD20, CD19
د) CD25, CD103, CD5, CD10, CD19
گزینه ها 👇
٩٦- در تشخیص آزمایشگاهی لوسمیهای میلوئید حاد کدام گزینه صحیح نمیباشد؟
الف) میلوبلاستهای اولیه با استفاده از مارکرهای CD117, CD33 قابل ردیابی هستند.
ب) در AML with t (8;21) بیان CD33 ضعیف بوده و گاهی با بیان CD56 همراه است.
ج) برای بررسی inv (16) در AML-M4 علاوه بر کاریوتایپ میتوان از روشهای FISH و RT-PCR استفاده کرد.
د) با توجه به مثبت بودن رنگ PAS در پیش سازهای نرمـال رده اریتروئیـدی نمـی تـوان از ایـن رنـگ جهـت افتـراق آنمـی مگالوبلاستیک از AML-M6 استفاده کرد.
گزینه ها پائین 👇
٩٥- بیماری ٢٠ ساله با علایم شدید درد شکم و سابقه درمان عفونت کرمی رودهای به بخش مراجعه نموده است در بررسـی آزمایشگاهی وی تمامی پارامترهای خونی نرمال بوده و تنها افزایش خفیف بازوفیل (٣ درصد) دیده مـی شـود. کـدام روند برای ادامه بررسی بیماری را توصیه میکنید؟
الف) بررسی سریع جهت نئوپلاسمهای میلوپرولیفراتیو از جمله CML
ب) انجام کومبس مستقیم جهت بررسی آنمیهای همولیتیک با توجه به افزایش بازوفیلها
ج) انجام بیوپسی مغز استخوان جهت پایش بیماریهای ذخیره چربی
د) اقدام فوری لازم نیست و آزمایشها میبایست در چند ماه آینده تکرار شود
گزینه ها 👇
٩٤- در پایش آزمایشگاهی هموگلوبینوپاتیها و تالاسمیها کدام گزینه صحیح است؟
الف) واریانتهای تشخیص داده شده با روش HPLC معمولا با یک روش دیگر همانند الکتروفورز تایید میشوند.
ب) به هموگلوبین هایی همانند هموگلوبین N و I که در pH:8.6 سریع تر از هموگلوبین A حرکت می کننـد هموگلـوبین هـای سریع گفته میشود.
ج) در افراد نرمال با استفاده از روش الوشن اسیدی در pH:3.3 کمتر از ١ درصد گلبول های قرمز حاوی هموگلـوبین F بـوده و F cell نامیده میشوند.
د) از روش Gap- PCR به صورت عمده در تشخیص حذفهای بزرگ بتاتالاسمی استفاده میشود.
٩٣- در آپلازی خالص رده اریتروئیدی (PRA) کدام گزینه صحیح است؟
الف) در فرد دارای آنمی همولیتیک که حملات آپلازی پاروو ویروسی دارد به خاطر کاهش سلول های BFU-E در مغز استخوان، برای رهایی از این وضعیت حداقل ٢ ماه زمان نیاز دارد.
ب) در کودکی که دچار اریتروبلاستوپنی گذرا (TEC) می شود آنمی نرموسیتیک شـدید دیـده شـده و در اکثـر مـوراد پلاکـت افزایش نشان میدهد.
ج) در آنمی بلک فان دیاموند (DBA) در اکثر موارد سطح هموگلوبین F نسبت به افراد نرمال ٥ تـا ٢٥ درصـد کـاهش نشـان میدهد.
د) اکثریت بیماران مبتلا به آپلازی رده اریتروئید اکتسابی همانند تیموما به درمان به داروهای سرکوبگر سیستم ایمنـی پاسـخ میدهند.
گزینه ها 👇
پاسخ سوال 91 :
MEASUREMENTS OF EFFECTIVE SURVIVAL OF
ERYTHROCYTES IN BLOOD
The erythrocyte survival can be determined by removing a sample of blood, labeling the erythrocytes with chromium-51 (51Cr), inactivating the excess 51Cr remaining in the plasma, and reinjecting the labeled erythrocytes into the patient. The 51Cr is bound to the β-chain of the hemoglobin molecule and, for the most part, is not released until the red blood cell is removed from the circulation and the hemoglobin is degraded. Measurements of radioactivity in the red blood cells are made at 2 hours or 24 hours (the zero time, or 100% level) and at 1-to3-day intervals until over 50% of the activity has disappeared. The results are usually expressed as the 51Cr half-survival time. The normal range is 28 to 38 days. (The reason it is not 60 days is that 51Cr is eluted from the hemoglobin at the rate of about 1% per day.) If production of erythrocytes equals destruction (i.e., if a steady state exists), the erythrocyte survival is also a measure of effective production of erythrocytes.
سوالات بعدی پاسخ ۹۱ تا ۱۰۵ #خون_شناسی فلوشیپ ورودی 402 است 👇
برای دسترسی به اولین سوالات ازمون روی پین کانال کلیک کنید
89)
All HbA1c assays are affected by blood loss, blood transfusions, and conditions that affect the age or survival of red blood cells, such as
hemolysis, pregnancy, and the use of drugs that stimulate erythropoiesis (Little et al., 2019). Shortened red blood cell survival or lower mean age will lower HbA1c levels as a result of reduced exposure to plasma glucose. HbA1c assays vary in reliability in the presence of a variety of other factors. Interference by carbamylated hemoglobin can occur with uremia in some older methods, and salicylates can cause interference by acetylated species. Hemoglobinopathies (HbSS, HbSC, HbCC, HbD trait, HbE trait, elevated fetal hemoglobin HbF) can adversely affect accuracy in certain assays as can iron deficiency and hemodialysis (Tarim et al., 1999; Little et al., 2019). Vitamins C and E can falsely lower levels by inhibiting glycosylation, but vitamin C can also increase levels in some assays. Sample storage effects may occur. Hyperglycemia has been associated with a decrease in erythrocyte survival, suggesting that HbA1c levels in poorly controlled patients may underestimate their mean plasma glucose concentration (for an updated list, see
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88)
Diarrhea as the cause of metabolic acidosis is first suspected from history, but history is often misleading because the severity of diarrhea cannot be easily determined. The measurement of urine anion gap is useful in determining the severity of diarrhea. The urine anion gap, which is measured as urine (Na+ + K+) − urine Cl−, is reduced or negative when diarrhea is severe. The low urine anion gap in diarrhea is explained by the preferential loss of Na+ + K+ in excess of Cl− because diarrheal fluid contains more Na+ + K+ than Cl−, as some of these cations are balanced by bicarbonate and organic anions. In other types of metabolic acidosis, the urine anion gap is not altered as long as there is no extrarenal loss of electrolytes that are components of the urine anion gap (Oh & Carroll, 2002). Once extrarenal acidosis is excluded, renal acidosis is the only
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55.
IN VIVO TEST TECHNIQUES: SKIN TESTS AND END-ORGAN
CHALLENGE TESTS
In discussing the use of laboratory tests in the diagnosis and management of allergic diseases, it is important to mention commonly used in vivo tests, particularly the skin prick test and end-organ challenge tests. In vivo tests are regarded by many allergy specialists in the United States as standards of diagnostic accuracy and reliability. The ability to reproduce a specific allergic reaction by in vivo challenge is considered the most highly predictive technique for demonstrating sensitization and for defining allergic reactivity to aeroallergens, venoms, and drugs. Despite this widely held opinion, the results of skin tests can be highly variable (McCann, 2002). Sources of variability include lack of standardization for the majority of diagnostic skin testing extracts, differences in the potency of allergen extracts available for testing, and differences in the techniques employed by different operators. Skin tests are performed by prick/puncture and intradermal injection methods (Demoly, 1998). The response to intradermal injection of an allergen extract is graded by measuring the diameter of the wheal and Skin tests also are performed by the prick method. Skin prick testing makes use of more concentrated allergen extracts, up to 1000-fold greater concentrations than are used for intradermal testing. A mean wheal diameter of 3 mm is commonly considered the threshold for a positive reaction. The wheal size provides an estimate of the degree of sensitization. A more quantitative estimate of sensitization can be obtained by the technique of endpoint titration. Serial, tenfold dilutions of allergen extract are used, beginning with the most dilute solution (Turkeltaub, 2000). The endpoint is defined as the greatest dilution that produces a 1+ reaction. End-organ challenge tests are useful both in the diagnosis and clinical management of the allergic patient. Adaptations include the bronchial provocation test in the evaluation of asthma; the double-blind, placebo-controlled food elimination and open food challenge test in the diagnosis of food allergy; and the rarely used sting challenge in the diagnosis of anaphylactic sensitivity to insect venom. Use of challenge tests in routine clinicalsituations is limited by the lack of well-standardized allergen extracts of defined potency and by the limited number of allergens that can be tested in an individual on a single occasion. As an example, double-blind food elimination and challenge procedures require periods of abstinence of several days between introduction of suspected foods (Sampson et al., 2012). Although generally regarded as the most reliable test for food allergy, the double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge test is performed by relatively few practicing allergists.
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٥٤- در خانمی مسن با ضایعات تاولی که تعداد و عملکرد لکوسیتهای او نرمال بوده و حساسیت به گلوتن نـدارد، علامـت_ Nikolskyمنفی است. در گزارش هیستوپاتولوژیک ضایعات پوست، به جدا شدن غشای پایه از لایهی سلولهای بازال اپیتلیوم اشاره شده است. در بررسی های ایمونولوژیک، بالا بودن تیتر آنتیبادی علیـه کـلاژن XVII و منفـی بـودن آنتیبادی علیه Dsg1 و Dsg3 و لامینین ملاحظه شده است. کدام تشخیص در مورد او محتملتر است؟ (گزینه ها در ادامه) 👇
Читать полностью…۵۱
THE MANNAN-BINDING
LECTIN PATHWAY
The third pathway for complement activation is the mannose-binding lectin or mannose-binding protein, known as the MBL pathway. This pathway uses its namesake protein to activate the cascade; the binding lectin has a typical serum concentration of 1.5 μg/mL. It is produced by the liver and belongs to a group of molecules called collectins (Epstein et al., 1996; Turner, 1996). Other notable members of the collectin family include lung surfactant proteins A and D (SP-A, SP-D), bovine conglutinin, bovine CL-43, and ficolins (Epstein et al., 1996; Thiel, 2007). Lectins are found in a variety of organisms, including all mammals and some birds. MBL and ficolins are described as complement-activating soluble pattern recognition molecules, meaning that they recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the exterior of microbes. After they bind with their specified PAMPs, they undergo a structural change so that they canthen interact with a group of three associated proteins that will trigger the complement cascade. These proteins are the MBL-associated serine proteases (MASP-1, MASP-2, MASP-3) (Thiel, 2007).
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۵۰. در صفحه 960 داریم :
Polyclonal Immunoglobulins
Polyclonal increases in immunoglobulins have been associated with many disease states (Table 47.6) (Cushman & Grieco, 1973; Buckley, 1977). Serum protein electrophoresis is often sufficient to establish this condition. Immunoelectrophoresis, immunofixation, and determination of individual immunoglobulins or immunoglobulin light chains may be helpful at times to confirm a polyclonal distribution or an increased concentration in one or more immunoglobulin classes. Increases in serum immunoglobulins may result from decreased catabolism and increased synthesis. The control mechanisms for these events are not well understood. The implications of elevated immunoglobulins are unknown. Most immunoglobulins appear not to be directed toward a definable specific antigenic determinant or set of specific antigenic determin nts. It should also be noted that most autoantibodies are not monoclonal but rather are polyclonal. In general, persistent polyclonal increases in gammaglobulin are thought to be related to antigenic stimulation of a chronic nature or loss of immunoglobulin regulation.
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پاسخ تشریحی آزمون ۴۰۲ ورودی فلوشیپ علوم آزمایشگاهی
48 در صفحه 945 از کتاب تکس داریم:
Transfused 51Cr-labeled cells, especially red blood cells, have been used since the early 1950s to study cellular in vivo distribution and kinetics. In the early to mid-1960s, Goodman (1961), Sanderson (1964), and Wigzell (1965) independently described the use of 51Cr-labeled mouse tumor of lymph node cells to study antibody-dependent complement-mediated cytotoxicity. Since that time, the chromium release assay has become the standard technique for the measurement of complement-or cell-mediated cytotoxicity. In the chromium release assay for cytotoxic T-cell activity, the
binding of CTLs to infected 51Cr-labeled target cells with virus peptide on syngeneic class I MHC induces apoptosis with the proportional release of 51Cr into the supernatant (Fig. 46.9) (Burleson et al., 2018; Levin et al., 1978; van der Haar Avila et al., 2019). Alternatives for the chromium release assay were developed because of its disadvantages, including its relatively limited sensitivity and use of a radioisotope. The most widely employedalternative techniques include flow cytometry, imaging cytometry, chemiluminescence, and variations of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (Fassy et al., 2017; La Muraglia et al., 2015; Rossignol et al., 2017).
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پاسخ سال 46 : در صفحه 931 داریم :
Understanding the pathways leading to T-cell activation has led to the discovery of molecular defects in several acquired immunodeficiency diseases and may ultimately help provide therapeutic strategies to correct these deficiencies (Milner & Holland, 2013; Ochs & Hagin, 2014; Rosen, 2000). For example, mutations in the PTK ZAP-70 have been reported and are associated with the autosomal form of severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) syndrome in humans (Elder, 1998). Mutations in the common γ chain of the interleukin receptors IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-9, and IL-15 lead to transduction abnormalities and are associated with the X-linked form of SCID (Noguchi et al., 1993). It is interesting to note that another form of autosomally inherited SCID is associated with mutations in the downstream Janus family protein tyrosine Jak3, the only signaling molecule associated with the common γ chain .
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پاسخ سوال 96)
In some cases, erythroid cells may show strong cytoplasmic PAS
positivity (Fig. 34.37). This is granular in early erythroid precursors and diffuse in later stages. Erythroid precursors are PAS negative in normal individuals and in most diseases, including nutritional megaloblastic anemia. They are sometimes positive, however, in iron deficiency anemia, thalassemia, and MDS with ring sideroblasts. Ring sideroblasts may be seen in erythroleukemia, and myeloblasts usually stain with SBB, MPO, and CAE. A nonspecific esterase-positive monocytic component may also be present. Neoplastic erythroid precursors are sometimes positive for ANA and ANB.
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95) در عفونت های کرمی معمولا اول درمان را همراه پیگیری نتایج درمان طی چندماه بررسی می کنند . اینکه در سایر گزینه ها الف و ب و ج برویم سراغ کشیدن مغز استخوان، یا بررسی نئوپلاسم و .... منطقی نیست .
Читать полностью…سوال 94 )
Laboratory Investigation of Hemoglobinopathies and
Thalassemias
گزینه الف )
Current practices include automated complete blood count (CBC); ferritin
or free erythrocyte protoporphyrin to rule out iron deficiency; and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or capillary electrophoresis for HbA2 and HbF measurement and detection of Hb variants; followed by alkaline and acid electrophoresis when a variant is found and additional studies (Sickledex, molecular studies), as necessary.
گزینه ب)
Hemoglobin Electrophoresis and Isoelectric Focusing.
Hb molecules in an alkaline solution have a net negative charge and move toward the anode in an electrophoretic system. A practical method for routine Hb electrophoresis is cellulose acetate at alkaline pH. It is rapid and reproducible and separates the major Hb variants S, D, G, C, and E from HbA (Figs. 33.17 and 33.18). Quantification of the major bands is easily accomplished. Those with an electrophoretic mobility greater than that of HbA at pH 8.6 are known as the “fast Hbs”; these include, in order of increasing mobility, Hbs K, J, Bart’s, N, I, and H. Hbs A2, C, E, and O Arab at the slow end are unresolved from each other, as are S, D, G, and Lepore. Citrate agar electrophoresis at an acidic pH provides ready separation of Hbs that migrate together on cellulose acetate: S from D and G, and C from E and O (Fig. 33.19). Isoelectric focusing separates Hbs based on their isoelectric point along a pH gradient, with high resolution (Fig. 33.20) (Basset, 1982).
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Transient Erythroblastopenia of Childhood
Transient erythroblastopenia of childhood (TEC) occurs in previously
healthy children, usually younger than 8 years of age, with most affected children between 1 and 3 years of age. It is characterized by a moderate to severe normocytic anemia that develops gradually, severe reticulocytopenia, transient neutropenia (20%), and increased platelet counts (60% of patients). Macrocytosis is usually observed during recovery because of the effects of reticulocytes. A history of a viral infection within the previous 3 months is frequently elicited. The bone marrow is generally normocellular and shows virtual absence of erythroid precursors, except for a few early forms. Granulocytic maturation arrest may occur in some neutropenic patients. Patients recover within 1 to 2 months without therapy except in rare occasions in which RBC transfusions may be needed for symptomatic anemia. TEC can occur in siblings simultaneously and in seasonal clusters. Transient neurologic manifestations, such as hemiparesis and seizures, may accompany TEC. In most cases, the pathogenesis involves humoral inhibition of erythropoiesis; cell-mediated immunosuppression was identified in about 25% of cases, but parvovirus has not been proven to be the cause of TEC (Narla, 2019).
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92)
Percent Saturation of TIBC. The ratio of serum iron to TIBC is the percent saturation of the TIBC. Normally, this is 20% to 55%; values below 15% indicate iron-deficient erythropoiesis. A marked diurnal variation in serum iron by as much as 30% normally occurs, with highest values in the morning and lowest values late in the day. Consequently, fasting morning blood specimens are preferred for the diagnosis of iron deficiency. The TIBC remains relatively constant in a normal individual. Pregnancy and oral contraceptives increase TIBC.
٩١- درخصوص اندازهگیری طول عمر موثر گلبولهای قرمز خون به کمک کروم رادیواکتیو کدام گزینه صحیح است؟
الف) پایش اندازه گیری بقاء گلبولهای قرمز با تزریق مستقیم 51Cr به خون محیطی از طریق ورید سفالیک انجام میشود.
ب) 51Cr به مارپیچ بتا در زنجیره آلفا وصل شده و قسمت اعظم آن تا تخریب کامل گلبولهای قرمز باقی میماند.
ج) پایش رادیواکتیویته 51Cr تا از بین رفتن ٥٠ درصد اکتیویته زمان صفر ادامه مییابد.
د) میران نرمال نیمه عمر گلبولهای قرمز با استفاده ار روش 51Cr حدود ٦٠ روز است.
گزینه ها در پائین 👇
Under conditions of acute stress, AVP and copeptin are secreted in stoichiometrically equivalent amounts, but copeptin is more suitable for laboratory analysis because of its greater stability. Following demonstration that copeptin is elevated following MI (Khan et al., 2007), studies suggested that copeptin measurement could improve early rule-out of NSTEMI compared with cTn alone (Reichlin et al., 2009; Ricci et al., 2016).
....
BOX 19.2:
Recommendations of a Joint Committee of the American Heart Association and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on CRP Testing to Assess CHD Risk.
.....
علت غلط بودن گزینه الف ) صفحه 275 داریم :
OTHER HEART FAILURE BIOMARKERS
Given the limited diagnostic power of BNP testing, there has been interest in developing additional markers and possibly pursuing a multimarker strategy for diagnosis and management of HF Two markers of current interest are Gal-3 (galectin-3) and ST-2 (suppressor of tumorigenicity 2) (Karayannis et al., 2013). Gal-3, first named “Mac-2” when it was discovered in mice (Ho & Springer, 1982), was later characterized as one of a family of lectins with an affinity for β-galactosides. Having a role in cell adhesion and other cellular processes, it is present in diverse tissues and elevated in many diseases
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٨٩- یک بیمار با دیابت شدید در حالت بیهوشی به اورژانس بیمارستان ارجاع گردید و انـدازهگیـری HbA1c انجـام شـد. نتایج نشان داد که میزان HbA1c= 5% میباشد. اگرچه همراهان بیمار تصدیق کردند که وی مبتلا به دیابت میباشد. آزمایش مجددا تکرار شد ولی نتایج همچنان حاکی از میزان HbA1c= 5% بود. همه مـوارد زیـر بـا احتمـال بـالایی میتواند دلیل یافته فوق باشد، بجز:
Читать полностью…٨٨- بیماری با دفع پتاسـیم ادراری کمتـر از mEq/mg of creatinine 0.01 بـه اورژانـس بیمارسـتان ارجـاع داده شـد. آزمایشات تکمیلی نشان داد که آنیون گپ ادراری وی mmol/24h 20 میباشد (آنیون گپ نرمال در ادرار mmol/24h (40 است. محتملترین دلیل یافتههای فوق کدام است؟
Читать полностью…Bullous Pemphigoid
BP is the most common type of autoimmune bullous disorder, and it occurs most frequently in the elderly. Clinically, BP patients present with urticarial lesions and tense blisters on the trunk and extremities, with associated pruritus. Mucosal involvement is uncommon and is reported in 10% to 30% of BP patients (Baum et al., 2014). The Nikolsky sign is negative in BP. In BP, autoantibodies target the two hemidesmosomal proteins: bullous pemphigoid antigen 1 (BPAg1 [BP230]) and bullous pemphigoid antigen 2 (BPAg2 [BP180]). BPAg2, also known as type XVII collagen, is a transmembrane protein that is determined to be the target autoantigen for pathogenic autoantibodies in BP (Vassileva et al., 2014). In it is unclear if autoantibodies to BPAg1, a cytoplasmic plakin family protein, relate to the pathogenesis of BP (Schmidt & Zillikens, 2010). Complement activation is believed to follow autoantibody binding, causing the physical loss of adhesion between the basal cell layer and the basement membrane (Kershenovich ذet al., 2014).
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53 : در صفحه 1037 از کتاب تکس 2022 داریم :
AUTOANTIBODY PROFILE IN SLE
The presence of a broad spectrum of autoantibodies is characteristic of SLE, such as antibodies to dsDNA, chromatin or nucleosomes, Sm antigen, U1nRNP, SS-A/Ro60, SS-B/La, C1q, ribosomal RNP, phospholipids and related proteins, and several other nonhistone protein or nonhistone protein-RNA complexes (Gomez-Puerta et al., 2008; Cervera, 2017; Pisetsky, 2017; Sarfaraz et al., 2018). Anti-dsDNA, anti-Sm, anti-C1q, and antiribosomal P are generally regarded as specific for SLE, but the prevalence of these autoantibodies varies widely depending on demographic variations, cohort composition (inception vs. cross sectional), and diagnostic assays used to detect the autoantibodies. Autoantibodies to dsDNA and chromatin are detectable in up to 90% of individuals with active disease (Mummert et al., 2018), and antibodies to C1q tend to segregate with SLE patients having glomerulonephritis
and active disease (Marto et al., 2005; Sinico et al., 2009) (Table
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برای دیدن سوال و پاسخ تشریحی سوالات از ابتدا روی پین کانال بزنید .
Читать полностью…سوال 49 :
TABLE 47.4
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47 . در صفحه 942 میخوانیم :
STAGES OF STUDY: THE CONFIRMING STAGE
General Aspects Once the screening of the individual has been achieved and evidence of a potential immunodeficiency has been observed, initial findings should be confirmed by repeated tests. Minimally, a positive and a negative (normal range and abnormal range) test should be carried out. Additional tests sometimes may be added to the panel; this may provide the beginning phase of analytic studies. It is important to make appropriate arrangements to draw blood when the patient is in the most clinically stable state. Double baseline studies are recommended before intervention is undertaken, which can encompass the confirming phase. In some cases of apparent immunodeficiency, sequestration of immune cells is reflected in low percentages of T lymphocytes in the peripheral compartment. The confirmation stage should also include a careful reevaluation of the patient’s medical history and family history. Studies that may be used at this confirming stage are shown in Box 46.3.
و 942 :
Skin Testing
The use of a skin test panel can be important at this point. This approach to cellular immune assessment originally served as the departure point for the development of the cellular immune functional tests because it measures delayed-type hypersensitivity directly in vivo. Experience with the delayed-type hypersensitivity skin test has shown good overall correlation between lack of reactivity, termed anergy, and immunodeficiency (Deodhar, 1983; Maas et al., 1998), but it has not been useful as an analytic tool to dissect out the reason for lack of response. In addition, the skin test is not very quantifiable. Use of the purified protein derivative skin test to assess the possible presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an exception, although anergic individuals do not respond. In addition, false positives are seen in persons who have been vaccinated with bacille Calmette-Guérin (Huebner et al., 1993). The relative effectiveness of a standardized Candida albicans skin test product in children has been reported (Ohri et al., 2004). Reasons for lack of skin test response are shown in Box 46.4. Some studies have been based on a de novo immunization skin test using dinitrofluorobenzene. Although this once was used rather extensively, the approach is no longer considered useful because of ambiguities in the underlying mechanism of reaction. The introduction of the “skin window” test may ultimately provide a more quantitative and informative measure of in vivo immune response because the reaction can be used to test autologous tumor response (Black et al., 1988). However, despite some reservations, the importance of the skin test as a convincing demonstration that immune defects noted in vitro may have prognostic significance in vivo should not be underestimated.
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